Socioeconomic and Parental Effects on ENEM Achievement: Evidence from Brazilian Microdata (2015–2023)
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Abstract
This study investigates the influence of family income and parental education on the performance of candidates in the Brazilian National High School Exam (ENEM) from 2015 to 2023, considering the five macro-regions of Brazil. Using INEP microdata, the analysis focuses on candidates who attended both exam days and obtained valid scores (≥100 points) in all knowledge areas and the essay component. Descriptive statistics and comparative analyses were employed to examine performance differentials across income brackets, parental education levels, school origin, and regional contexts. The results reveal a robust and persistent socioeconomic gradient: candidates from higher-income households and those whose parents hold higher education or postgraduate degrees scored, on average, up to 150 points higher than their peers from the lowest strata. Maternal education exhibited a slightly stronger association with performance than paternal education, while the joint effect of highly educated parents showed a complementary impact beyond individual contributions. Although the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily compressed performance disparities, inequalities reemerged by 2023, indicating strong structural persistence. The findings highlight the central role of family socioeconomic and cultural capital in shaping educational outcomes and underscore the need for educational policies that integrate school-based interventions with broader family- and community-oriented strategies to mitigate long-standing inequalities in access to higher education.
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